The Learning Domains Involved
Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains features three intersecting domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor (Figure 1). The one-on-one instructional strategy straddles the cognitive and affective domains.
The modern iteration of Bloom’s scheme (Forehand, 2010), describes the cognitive domain as a series of learning processes which lead to the development of mental skills and knowledge; organized from the simplest processes to the more complex. The affective domain (Clark, 2010) characterizes learning processes that lead to the development (learning) of emotional intelligence or, more specifically, the formation and understanding of values, attitudes, feelings, enthusiasms, and motivations.
Figure 1 shows how the various instructional components of “END” relate to the Bloom’s taxonomical scheme. Instructional components that are mostly cognitive in nature (items 1 and 8) come at the beginning and end of the lesson plan; respectively. Item 2 (“10-Concerns Creation”) demands that the learner look inward for sources of personal anxiety and concern; which constitutes an effective, learning experience of oneself. The rest of the instructional components fall in the region where cognitive and affective domains overlap. Very little of the “END” method targets psychomotor learning; outside of some basic skills like shaking the hand of a host-country citizen.
Figure 1. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains and position of “END” instructional components within the taxonomy. The one-on-one instructional elements are shaded in orange.
Bloom’s taxonomy of learning domains features three intersecting domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor (Figure 1). The one-on-one instructional strategy straddles the cognitive and affective domains.
The modern iteration of Bloom’s scheme (Forehand, 2010), describes the cognitive domain as a series of learning processes which lead to the development of mental skills and knowledge; organized from the simplest processes to the more complex. The affective domain (Clark, 2010) characterizes learning processes that lead to the development (learning) of emotional intelligence or, more specifically, the formation and understanding of values, attitudes, feelings, enthusiasms, and motivations.
Figure 1 shows how the various instructional components of “END” relate to the Bloom’s taxonomical scheme. Instructional components that are mostly cognitive in nature (items 1 and 8) come at the beginning and end of the lesson plan; respectively. Item 2 (“10-Concerns Creation”) demands that the learner look inward for sources of personal anxiety and concern; which constitutes an effective, learning experience of oneself. The rest of the instructional components fall in the region where cognitive and affective domains overlap. Very little of the “END” method targets psychomotor learning; outside of some basic skills like shaking the hand of a host-country citizen.
Figure 1. Bloom’s Taxonomy of Learning Domains and position of “END” instructional components within the taxonomy. The one-on-one instructional elements are shaded in orange.
Theory Underlying this Strategy
WHAT instructional methods are required by IET?
Many experts believe that “social learning theory” can explain how learning is accomplished by IET (Black & Mendenhall, 1990; Littrell et al., 2006; Winkelman, 1994). Social learning theory describes a process of learning based upon the influences of observation and experience. New behaviors are created when learners observe others performing the behavior. The theory is seen as a synthesis of the cognitive and behavior learning theories (Black & Mendenhall, 1990). One core objective of IET is to instill new social behaviors (i.e., new intercultural effectiveness skills) in trainees; through the observation and modeling of others who have mastered these behaviors.
IET programs should use a combination of cognitive (didactic) and experiential activities (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Littrell et al., 2006). The didactic component usually comprises practical information regarding the host-country’s culture, geography, climate, history, and living and working conditions and so on. Teaching methods used to convey this information include audio-visual sessions, reading country reports and case studies, and seminars. This practical information serves to provide context or the foundation for deeper forms of learning; in the form of experiential learning. Experiential learning activities combine didactic elements with behavior-modification techniques such as simulation games, role playing, video playback, behavior modeling and skills practice to produce intercultural effectiveness skills (Kealey & Protheroe, 1996). Many IET experts would agree that “learning is promoted when learners activate relevant cognitive structures by being directed to recall, relate, describe or demonstrate relevant prior knowledge or experience” (Reigeluth & Carr-Chellman, 2009, p. 133).
WHAT theory lies behind one-on-one discussion and WHY does it work for IET?
- The method works because it is consistent with Merrill’s first principles of instruction (Reigeluth & Carr-Chellman, 2009). Each learner involved in a discussion becomes mentally involved; whether they are listening or speaking. They are participating in something (Merrill’s application principle). As they listen to the speaker, they are recalling their current knowledge (Merrill’s activation principle) to help make sense of what is being said. They then try to integrate the newly acquired knowledge (Merrill’s integration principle) with what they knew beforehand.
- Discussion-based instruction is nested in the constellation of instructional methods that make up the experiential approach. Adherents of the work of Kolb propose that when a learner is engaged in an experience-oriented learning activity they learn from the experience and are able apply this knowledge to generate new experiences (Reigeluth & Carr-Chellman, 2009). Kolb followers would likely say something like this about experiential instruction; that “all instruction must be experiential, the learner being a participant and therefore experiencing it” (Reigeluth & Carr-Chellman, 2009, p. 120).
- Dialogism (Wen, 2010; Applebee, Langer, Nystrand, & Gamoran, 2003) might help explain the power of the one-on-one discussion as a learning tool. According to this theory, the learners knowledge and understanding increase during dialogue; each verbal exchange being retained and built upon by future exchanges. Wen brings it all together when he says:
"dialogic interactions provide opportunities for the individuals to talk it out, in the process of which the individual’s thinking is further expanded by hearing the alternative views of others, becoming clearer through expressing his or her own ideas and discussing other possibilities with others” (Wen, 2010, p. 66).
- Discussion-based instruction has been shown to be suited for learning situations where “in-depth exploration of topics, interactions of ideas and people from multiple perspectives are valued or in settings where developing strengths in analysis and critical thinking within a community are important” Reigeluth & Carr-Chellman, 2009, p. 103). These learning aspects are central to "END".
HOW does one-on-one discussion work within “END”?
The “END” exercise is consistent with the instructional theories and needs mentioned above. It features a combination of didactic and experiential learning activities. This section will only describe the primary instructional method: one-on-one discussion. The other methods included in "END" will be covered in Part II.
One-on-one discussion is framed by the earlier elements of the "END" lesson. The learner is expected to bring the knowledge provided by "END" exercises “Host Country Profile”, “National’s Life” and “National’s Perspectives” to the table for the one-on-one phase of "END". Lesson items 5, 6, and 7 (or the one-on-one discussion phase) provide the learning environment that encourages the learner to think about good behaviors to consider using in the host country and to develop better critical thinking and problem solving skills. In this section of "END", the learner is asked to: a) compare / contrast their culture with the host culture; b) to work through a list of personal concerns; and c) to solve real-world problems or scenarios.
The one-on-one discussion element, along with the other elements of "END", helps the learner transcend the factual content to deal intensively in the intellectual and psychosocial dimensions; a property of good IET programs (Bennett et al., 2000; Kealey & Protheroe, 1996; Littrell et al., 2006). This would allow the trainee to apply the new-found knowledge with logic and reason to manage new circumstances. “A ‘learning to learn’ approach to training is most effective” (Bennett et al., 2000, p. 244).
Main Process for Implementing the Strategy
The "END" lesson plan is suited for the last day of a 3 or more-day IET program. Both the learner and the National are prepared for the lesson beforehand. On day-1 of the IET program, the "END" lesson is introduced to the entire class of expatriates by the facilitator. At this time, each student is given an orientation package which contains a written overview of the lesson, a description of the National’s role, the national's "bio", a country-specific reading package (lesson item: “Host Country Profile”), and a self-reflective assignment (lesson item: “10-Concerns Creation”.
The national (representing the host country) will be selected at least three weeks before the IET course. They will receive an orientation package that outlines what the "END" program is all about. They will begin to prepare for several tasks; namely, the telling of their life story back in their home country (lesson item: “National’s Life”), discussion of a number of country-specific topics as understood by them (“National’s Perspectives”), and to understand how the “Cultural Analysis” tool, the expatriate’s ten concerns (“10-Concerns Creation”) and the “scenarios” section of END will be conducted. They are invited to meet with the facilitator to go over expectations and to clarify the "END" process one week before the lesson date.
The "END" session is to be very informal. Both parties are informed in the orientation package that there are no absolutes when it comes to understanding a given culture and that the aim of "END" is to expose the expatriate to “specific-culture” knowledge; building upon the “general-culture” knowledge acquired earlier in the IET.
The facilitator spends a few minutes with each expatriate / National pairing at the beginning of the "END" exercise. Then the facilitator circulates amongst the pairings; listening-in and responding to any questions. A full-class debriefing is hosted by the facilitator at the end of the exercise. Each pairing is asked to present three key lessons learned in front of the class.
Criteria for Successful Implementation
For the "END" program to be successful, the following conditions should be met:
- The expatriate has retained general-culture knowledge and has developed some intercultural effectiveness skills from earlier IET exercises.
- The expatriate is committed to getting ready for the "END" lesson (i.e., did their homework).
- The expatriate is committed to making the session the best it
can be (e.g., open-minded).
- The national has sufficient insight into the host country.
- The national has prepared for the "END" lesson.
- The national has the ability to communicate their knowledge.
- The expatriate and the national are able to develop a relationship that encourages free dialogue.
- The learning environment for the "END" is conducive to free dialogue (e.g., minimal distractions).
- The
pairing uses the allotted time for each "END" exercise wisely.
Situational Constraints
The END program has several inherent limitations:
The END program has several inherent limitations:
- Locating a national for each required host country may prove difficult or impossible. [If one cannot be located, an educator from the IET team may have to step in as a substitute.]
- Only the perspectives of one national are being tabled not the perspectives of a body of nationals.
- The openness and preparation of the expatriate will be critical to the outcome of the exercise.
- The openness and preparation of the national will be critical
to the outcome of the exercise.
- "END" learning outcomes are difficult to predict when using one-on-one discussion and problem-solving.
- There is no dedicated facilitator guiding the "END" agenda; discussions can get off track.
- Only so much can be covered in the five hours dedicated to
"END".
-
If the room is not conducive to the one-on-one dynamic (e.g., small tables set far apart ) learning may be compromised.
9. There is very little time during some phases of "END" for the student to REFLECT upon what they have experienced.
Relevance
to Adult Learning Contexts
The "END" program and especially the one-on-one discussion component are learner-centred in nature and consistent with the principles of andragogy or adult learning (Spencer, 2006). The expatriate, not the course facilitator, directs the learning process. They are required to do preparatory homework prior to "END"; namely, to read the host-country profile and to generate discussion points of personal interest (“10-Concerns Creation”). They are required to actively listen to the National’s history and viewpoints and then use this new knowledge to generate a personal understanding of the host country. The program caters to the adult learner in that there is an element of problem-based learning and the learner is asked to draw upon knowledge and experience learned earlier in the IET program to create new knowledge and skill.
Click on "MORE" to go to page 3
The "END" program and especially the one-on-one discussion component are learner-centred in nature and consistent with the principles of andragogy or adult learning (Spencer, 2006). The expatriate, not the course facilitator, directs the learning process. They are required to do preparatory homework prior to "END"; namely, to read the host-country profile and to generate discussion points of personal interest (“10-Concerns Creation”). They are required to actively listen to the National’s history and viewpoints and then use this new knowledge to generate a personal understanding of the host country. The program caters to the adult learner in that there is an element of problem-based learning and the learner is asked to draw upon knowledge and experience learned earlier in the IET program to create new knowledge and skill.
Click on "MORE" to go to page 3